Real Black folk humor, however, did survive and thrive in Black nightclubs and Black theaters such as the Apollo in Harlem and the Regal in Chicago in the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s. In these settings, known as the “Chitterlin’ Circuit,” such African American comedians as Tim Moore, Dusty Fletcher, Butterbeans and Susie, Stepin Fetchit, Jackie “Moms” Mabley, Redd Foxx, and Slappy White performed without restrictions.
African American comedians enjoyed greater exposure during the 1960s. No longer confined to the “Chitterlin’ Circuit,” comedians such as Jackie “Moms” Mabley, Redd Foxx, and Slappy White began to perform to audiences in exclusive white clubs as well as to audiences within the Black community. They used Black folk humor to comment on politics, civil rights, work, sex, and a variety of other subjects. Jackie “Moms” Mabley made two popular recordings: Moms Mabley at the UN and Moms Mabley at the Geneva Conference. In January of 1972, Redd Foxx premiered on television as Fred Sanford on Sanford and Son, which remained popular in syndication for decades.
Several younger African American comedians came into prominence in the early 1960s. Dick Gregory used black folk humor to make political commentary. Bill Cosby specialized in amusing chronicles about boyhood in America. Godfrey Cambridge, although successful, did not rely on black folk humor. During the late 1960s and the early 1970s, Flip Wilson, who parodied historical and social experience by creating black characters who lived in a Black world, became extremely popular on television. His cast of characters, which included “Freddy the Playboy,” “Sammy the White House Janitor,” and “Geraldine,” used Black folk humor as a commentary on an array of issues.
Another pivotal African American comedian who began his career in the 1960s was Richard Pryor. His well-timed, risqué, sharp folk humor quickly won him a large group of faithful fans. Pryor, who has recorded extensively, also starred successfully in several films including Lady Sings the Blues, Car Wash, and Stir Crazy.
During the 1980s, numerous African American comedians became successful in the various entertainment media. Eddie Murphy made his first appearance on the television show Saturday Night Live in 1980. From television, Murphy went on to Hollywood, making his movie debut in the film 48 Hours in 1982. Starring roles in such films as Beverly Hills Cop, Trading Places, Coming To America, Boomerang, The Nutty Professor, Dr. Dolittle, and their sequels, have made Murphy the top-grossing African American actor of all time.
Murphy established his own company, Eddie Murphy Productions, to create and produce television and films such as his stand-up concerts, Delirious (1983), and Raw (1987). More recent projects include The P.J.’s (1999), Life (1999) The Nutty Professor II: The Klumps (2000) and Norbit (2007). Murphy’s vocal talents animated characters such as Mushu in Disney’s Mulan and Donkey in the Dreamworks’ Shrek franchise. In 2007, Murphy was nominated for an Oscar and won the Golden Globe and Screen Actor’s Guild (SAG) Awards for his portrayal of James “Thunder” Early in the film remake of Dreamgirls.
After achieving success on the stand-up circuit, several African Americans earned opportunities on television and in films in the 1990s. Keenan Ivory Wayans and his brother Damon created and starred in the Emmy Award-winning show, In Living Color. The sketch-comedy show provided a vehicle for social commentary and launched the careers of Jamie Foxx, Jim Carrey, and Jennifer Lopez. With his brothers Damon and Marlon, he went on to write and produce the popular slapstick comedies, Scary Movie, White Chicks, and Little Man.
Martin Lawrence appealed to audiences in a self-titled sitcom which featured him portraying himself, his mother, and his female neighbor, Sheneneh. He teamed up with Will Smith and their comic antics made blockbuster hits of Bad Boys and Bad Boys II. Lawrence produced his two successful stand-up films, You So Crazy and Runteldat; as well as the immensely popular film, Big Momma’s House and its sequel.
Chris Rock gained popularity on Saturday Night Live with brash, politically-informed characters that helped him earn roles in such movies as Lethal Weapon 4, Dogma, and Nurse Betty. A true stand up comedian, Rock won two Emmys in 1996 for his HBO special, Bring the Pain and a 2000 Grammy Award for the CD recording of another HBO special, Bigger & Blacker. His self-titled variety show on HBO garnered the third Emmy for Best Writing and Everybody Hates Chris, a sitcom-inspired by Rock’s childhood, became one of the most popular shows on the CW Network in 2005.
Steve Harvey, Bernie Mac, D.L. Hughley, and Cedric the Entertainer reign as “The Original Kings of Comedy.” Their two-year comedy tour was the most successful in history. It grossed $37 million for the comedians and their promoter, Walter Latham, and brought them to the attention of Spike Lee. In 2000, he produced a documentary of the tour that propelled the “Kings” into the forefront of mainstream media. They all joined the ranks of comedians with self-titled sitcoms.
After a five-year run, Harvey went on to host the Steve Harvey Morning Show, a popular radio drive show, syndicated in 25 markets. In 2006, he returned to his stand up roots with a 15 city tour and a film he produced, Don’t Trip . . . He Ain’t Through With Me Yet. Mac focused on his film career starring in the remake of Ocean’s Eleven and its sequels, Mr. 3000, Charlie’s Angels: Full Throttle, Guess Who?, Pride and the Transformers. Cedric the Entertainer’s vocal talents were featured in Dr. Doolittle 2, The Proud Family, Ice Age, Madagascar, and Charlotte’s Web. Some of his other popular movies include Barbershop, Be Cool, and The Honeymooners. In the 2006-2007 season, Hughley returned to television starring in the critically acclaimed series, Studio 60.
Dave Chappelle developed his satirically aggressive style doing street comedy in New York City, a skill he honed as a regular on Russell Simmons’Def Comedy Jam. In 1998, he co-wrote his first film, Half-Baked, a cult classic that gave him a loyal fan base. He also appeared in such films as The Nutty Professor, You’ve Got Mail, and Undercover Brother. A successful HBO special, Dave Chappelle: Killin’ Them Softly increased his popularity and in 2003, Comedy Central offered Chappelle his own sketch comedy show.
Chappelle’s Show was an instant critical and commercial success, featuring a talented ensemble cast, progressive hip hop artists, and Chappelle’s biting social commentary on matters of race and American culture. The DVD sales of the show’s first season were over 3 million copies. At the end of the second season, it was one of the highest-rated shows on basic cable, prompting Comedy Central to offer Chappelle 50 million dollars to continue the show for two more seasons. At the height of his popularity and the middle of taping the third season, Chappelle abruptly left the show. He cited stress and creative differences with the show’s executives as the reason. In 2005, a documentary titled Dave Chappelle’s Block Party, captured Chappelle, in rare form, hosting a star-studded free concert in Brooklyn.
AFRICAN AMERICAN DANCE INTO THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY
Black dance, like other forms of black entertainment, had its beginnings in Africa and on the plantations of early America, where slaves performed to entertain themselves and their masters. White minstrels in blackface incorporated many of these black dance inventions into their shows, while dancers in Black minstrelsy like “Master Juba” (William Henry Lane) thrilled audiences with their artistry.
Many performers in the early Black musicals that appeared on Broadway from 1898 through 1910 were expert show dancers, such as George Walker and Bert Williams. Similarly, in the all-black musicals of the 1920s, performers such as Florence Mills and Bill “Bojangles” Robinson captivated audiences with their show dancing. The musical Runnin’ Wild (1926) was responsible for creating the Charleston dance craze of the “Roaring Twenties.”
By the early 1930s, African American pioneers of modern dance were appearing on the dance stage. Four of these African American innovators were Hemsley Winfield, Asadata Dafore, Katherine Dunham, and Pearl Primus.
Hemsley Winfield presented what was billed as “The First Negro Concert in America” in Manhattan’s Chanin Building on April 31, 1931. Two suites on African themes were performed, along with solos by Edna Guy and Winfield himself. In 1933, Winfield became the first African American to dance for the Metropolitan Opera, performing the role of the Witch Doctor in The Emperor Jones.
Austin Asadata Dafore Horton, a native of Sierra Leone, electrified audiences in New York with his 1934 production of Kykunkor. Dance historian Lynne Fauley Emery concluded that Kykunkor “was the first performance by black dancers on the concert stage which was entirely successful. It revealed the potential of ethnic material to Black dancers, and herein lay Dafore’s value as a great influence on Black concert dance” (1988, Black Dance from 1619 to Today).
Katherine Dunham had her first lead dance role in Ruth Page’s West Indian ballet La Guiablesse in 1933. In 1936, Dunham received a master’s degree in anthropology from the University of Chicago. Her thesis, “The Dances of Haiti,” was the result of her onsite study of native dances in the West Indies. For the next 30 years, Dunham and her dance company toured the United States and Europe, dazzling audiences with her choreography. During the 1963-1964 season, Dunham choreographed the Metropolitan Opera’s production of Aida, becoming the first African American to do so.
Pearl Primus, like Katherine Dunham, was trained in anthropology. Her research in primitive African dance inspired her first professional composition, African Ceremonial, which was presented on February 14, 1943. Primus made her Broadway debut, on October 4, 1944, at the Belasco Theater in New York. Her performance included dances of West Indian, African, and African American origin. The concert was widely acclaimed and launched her career as a dancer. Primus has traveled to Africa many times to research African dances. In 1959, she was named director of Liberia’s Performing Arts Center. She later opened the Primus-Borde School of Primal Dance with her husband, dancer Percival Borde and the Pearl Primus Dance Language Institute in New Rochelle, New York. In 1991, President George W. Bush, Sr. honored Primus with the National Medal of Arts. She died on October 29, 1994, at the age of 73.
By the late 1950s, several African American dancers and dance companies were distinguishing themselves from the concert stage. Janet Collins was the “premiere danseuse” of the Metropolitan Opera Ballet from 1951 until 1954. Arthur Mitchell made his debut as a principal dancer with the New York City Ballet in 1955. Alvin Ailey established his company in 1958. In addition, Geoffrey Holder, who made his Broadway debut in 1954 in House of Flowers, became a leading choreographer.
Since the early 1960s, two of the leading dance companies in the United States have been headed by African American males and composed largely of African American dancers. They are the Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater and the Dance Theatre of Harlem. In the 1970s, several prominent African American women dancers established schools and trained young dancers in regional companies throughout the United States.
THE ALVIN AILEY AMERICAN DANCE THEATER
The Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater (AAADT), since its founding in 1958, has performed before more people throughout the world than any other American dance company. With a touring circuit that has included 48 states, 68 countries on six continents, the AAADT has been seen by more than 21 million people. Today, the Alvin Ailey Dance Foundation (AADF) is the umbrella organization for the Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater, Ailey II, The Ailey School, Ailey Arts in Education & Communication Programs, and The Ailey Extension.
Between 1958 and 1988, AAADT performed 150 works by 45 choreographers, most of whom were African American. Notable among these African American choreographers have been Tally Beatty, Donald McKayle, Louis Johnson, Eleo Romare, Billy Wilson, George Faison, Pearl Primus, Judith Jamison, Katherine Dunham, Ulysses Dove, Milton Myers, Kelvin Rotardier, Geoffrey Holder, and Gary DeLoatch. More than 250 dancers, again mostly African American, have performed with the dance theater. Among its star performers have been Judith Jamison, Clive Thompson, Dudley Williams, Donna Wood, Gary DeLoatch, George Faison, and Sara Yarborough. A prolific choreographer, Alvin Ailey created numerous works for his dance theater and other dance companies including Revelations (1958), Reflections in D (1962), Quintet (1968), Cry (1971), Memoria (1974) and Three Black Kings (1976). Alvin Ailey choreographed Carmen for the Metropolitan Opera in 1973 and Precipice for the Paris Opera in 1983.
Alvin Ailey died in December of 1989. Since his death, Judith Jamison has taken over as Artistic Director and has expanded Ailey’s concept of cultural community exponentially. The Ailey Arts in Education & Community Programs and the Ailey Extension provide opportunities for dance performances, training and community programs for all people.
The Ailey School is the official school of the Ailey organization. It attracts students from across the United States and abroad and offers a certificate in dance. The center’s curriculum includes training in ballet, the Dunham Technique, jazz, and modern dance. It has an affiliation with Fordham University and offers a Bachelor in Fine Arts to eligible dance students. They graduated their first class in 2002.
Ailey II was established in 1974 as a training and performing company. Many of its graduates advance to AAADT or perform with other dance companies.
AAADT celebrated its 40th year in December of 1998 by presenting the works of many choreographers including Artistic Director Judith Jamison. Long-time Ailey choreographer, Geoffrey Holder, redesigned and restaged his lavish 1967 production of The Prodigal Prince, the story of a Haitian folk artist and voodoo priest who painted with a feather, for the anniversary celebration.
Judith Jamison carried the Olympic Torch prior to the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City and AAADT performed at the Olympic Arts Festival. In that same year, President George W. Bush, Jr. awarded the National Medal of the Arts to both Jamison and the Alvin Ailey Dance Foundation. It is the first time in history that a dance organization has received such an honor.
As the Alvin Ailey American Dance Theatre approaches its 50th anniversary, it continues to be a trailblazing leader among dance companies worldwide.
THE DANCE THEATRE OF HARLEM
In 1969, Arthur Mitchell, who had established himself as one of the leading ballet dancers in the United States, and Karel Shook, a white ballet teacher, founded the Dance Theatre of Harlem (DTH). It was established after Martin Luther King Jr.’s death to provide the arts of dance and theater to young people in Harlem. DTH made its formal debut in 1971 at the Guggenheim Museum in New York City. Three of Mitchell’s works were premiered at this concert: Rhythmetron, Tones, and Fete Noire. Their repertory was wide-ranging. It included works in the Balanchine tradition such as Serenade, as well as culturally inspired works such as Geoffrey Holder’s Dougla. Among the most spectacular works performed by the theater are Firebird, Giselle, Scheherazade, and Swan Lake. Some of the dancers who have had long associations with the theatre are Lowell Smith, Virginia Johnson, Shelia Rohan, and Troy Game. Many of the theatre’s graduates have gone on to perform with other dance companies in the United States and Europe. In 2004, DTH celebrated its 35th anniversary with an extensive tour of the U.S. and the U.K. Ironically, that same year, the theatre ran into severe financial straits and the Repertory Company has been forced into hiatus. The Dance Theatre of Harlem School (DTHS), however, remains open for training and community outreach. Their “Dancing Through Barriers” Ensemble, comprised of students, renowned and emerging guest artists, performs for the public every second Sunday of the month.
BLACK REGIONAL DANCE SCHOOLS
While Ailey and Mitchell built their companies in New York, African American women such as Joan Myers Brown, Ann Williams, Cleo Parker Robinson, Lula Washington, and Jeraldyne Blunden established young, mostly African American dance companies in major American cities. Robinson founded her Cleo Parker Robinson Dance Ensemble in 1970 in her native city, Denver. That same year, Blunden created her company in Dayton, Ohio and Brown opened her school in Philadelphia. In 1976, Williams founded the Dallas Black Dance Theater, and in 1980 Washington created a troupe in Los Angeles that is now known as the Lula Washington Dance Theater. Each institution began as a school with deep roots in African American urban communities. They all started on a shoestring with a few eager young dancers. Their focus was on the discipline of dance and the values of integrity and intelligence. Today these troupes are nationally known for the high quality of their dancing and for repertories that include modern dance classics, some by African American choreographers. These five women have developed a cooperative network through which they exchange ideas and dancers. Collectively, they have trained thousands of dancers, some of whom have gone on to major companies. In 1997, they were honored with a daylong tribute entitled “Dance Women: Living Legends,” in which all five companies performed and celebrated the efforts of these five tenacious women in the pursuit of dance. Debbie Allen founded the Debbie Allen Dance Academy (DADA) as a training institution because she saw a lack of quality in the arts education programs available to children. DADA enrolls close 400 children annually, ages 5-18, in three programs based on age and ability—Early Bird Academy, Pre-Academy and Academy. The school focuses on artistic and academic achievement. DADA students must maintain a 3.0 average while undergoing a rigorous dance curriculum. Students in the Academy are required to take a minimum of 12 classes a week in ballet, African, modern, flamenco, character, tap, jazz, hip hop, salsa, and Dunham Technique, with optional classes in aerial training, voice, and acting. DADA’s mission is to train young people on how to sustain professional careers in dance, musical theatre, film, and television.
Between 1960 and 2007, many African American dancers have led distinguished careers in concert dance and show dancing. Among them have been Eleo Pomare, Debbie Allen, Rod Rogers, Fred Benjamin, Pepsi Bethel, Eleanor Hampton, Charles Moore, Garth Fagan, Carmen de Lavallade, and Mary Hinkson. Fagan earned a Tony Award in 1998 for choreographic work on the Disney-produced spectacle, The Lion King. Foremost among African American choreographers have been Geoffrey Holder, Louis Johnson, Donald McKayle, Bebe Miller, George Faison, Bill T. Jones, and Donald Byrd who garnered a Tony nomination in 2006 for his choreography on The Color Purple.
Prominent among the African American dancers who revived the tap dance tradition is Buster Brown, Honi Coles, Hinton Battle, Gregory Hines, Lavaughn Robinson, Nita Feldman, Ted Levy, and Savion Glover. Glover came to prominence in the 1995 Broadway production of Bring in ’Da Noise, Bring in ’Da Funk. Two notable small companies that have twenty-five years or more of innovative dance history are Bill T. Jones/Arne Zane Dance Company and Forces Of Nature Dance Theater. Bill T. Jones founded his multiracial, multicultural company in 1982 with his partner Arne Zane. The ten-member company has a distinctive repertoire that incorporates musically and text-driven work. Collaborations with artists such as Max Roach, Keith Haring, The Orion String Quartet, Cassandra Wilson, and Fado allow the Bill T. Jones/Arne Zane Dance Company to push dance vernacular to the edge. Last Supper at Uncle Tom’s Cabin/The Promised Land, Still/Here and We Set Out Early, Visibility Was Poor are some of the award-winning, evening-length works Jones is known for.
Choreographer Abdel Salaam and Executive Director Dele Husbands founded the Forces of Nature Dance Theatre in 1981 to synthesize the traditions of the African diaspora and American culture into dance. With the use of live and recorded music, Forces’ repertoire blends mythology and ritual with Modern, West African, Ballet and Contemporary House dance forms, forging a new vocabulary of movement. The Legend of Marie Laveau, Ancestral Earths, Passionfruit, and From the Mud Below are some of Salaam’s most celebrated creations.”
2019 and Beyond – Continued Color-Blind and Color-Conscious Casting
There is still a long way to go toward racial equality, but strides have been made by black actors who have recently originated, replaced or gone on as an understudy as characters that have usually been perceived as white. Some wins for representation in the past few years include Norm Lewis as the Phantom in The Phantom of the Opera, Noma Dumezweni as Hermione in Harry Potter and the Cursed Child, Nicolette Robinson as Jenna in Waitress, Joshua Henry as Billy Bigelow in Carousel, Aisha Jackson as Anna in Frozen, Michael Luwoye as Alexander Hamilton in Hamilton, Brittney Johnson as Glinda in Wicked and Christiani Pitts as Ann Darrow in King Kong.
There is still a long way to go toward racial equality, but strides have been made by black actors who have recently originated, replaced or gone on as an understudy as characters that have usually been perceived as white. Some wins for representation in the past few years include Norm Lewis as the Phantom in The Phantom of the Opera, Noma Dumezweni as Hermione in Harry Potter and the Cursed Child, Nicolette Robinson as Jenna in Waitress, Joshua Henry as Billy Bigelow in Carousel, Aisha Jackson as Anna in Frozen, Michael Luwoye as Alexander Hamilton in Hamilton, Brittney Johnson as Glinda in Wicked and Christiani Pitts as Ann Darrow in King Kong.
