American Plains Indians who fought against these soldiers referred to the Black cavalry troops as “buffalo soldiers” because of their dark, curly hair, which resembled a buffalo’s coat, and because of their fierce nature of fighting. The nickname soon became synonymous with all African-American regiments formed in 1866. In 1866, an Act of Congress created six all-Black peacetime regiments, later consolidated into four, the 9th and 10th Cavalry, and the 24th and 25th Infantry, who became known as “The Buffalo Soldiers.” There are differing theories regarding the origin of this nickname. One is that the Plains Indians who fought the Buffalo Soldiers thought that their dark, curly hair resembled the fur of the buffalo. Another is that their bravery and ferocity in battle reminded the Indians of the way buffalo fought. Whatever the reason, the soldiers considered the name high praise, as buffalo were deeply respected by the Native peoples of the Great Plains. And eventually, the image of a buffalo became part of the 10th Cavalry’s regimental crest.
Collection of the Smithsonian National Museum of African American History and Culture.
To settle problems in 19th-century New Mexico, the U.S. Army called upon a group of recently freed black men to form the 9th and 10th Cavalries. They subsequently became known as “Buffalo Soldiers.” (Courtesy photo/49th Fighter Wing History Office)
Each regiment consisted of ten companies, all of which were led by a Colonel. Each of the companies had about one hundred troops. In total, the regiment was about ten thousand strong. Although Blacks were not allowed to become commissioned officers, they were granted the ranks of non-commissioned officers, such as the various levels of Sergeants and Corporal. These, unfortunately, were the only ranks Black soldiers could aspire to.
The Buffalo Soldiers are an example of one such colored regiment. Although they were formed after the Civil War, they were the first peacetime, all-colored regiment to be put into service, and saw much action against Indian raiding parties along the frontier. The name “Buffalo Soldiers” was given to them by the Indian enemies they faced in battle (Creating Black Americans).
“Let it be said that the Negro soldier did his duty under the flag whether that flag protects him or not.”
– Edward A. Johnson, New York State Legislator, 1917
During the war, several troubles arose for Black Americans even after being admitted into the armed forces. The first was equal pay. Black soldiers, whether non-commissioned officers or not, received a monthly payment of seven dollars. Enlisted White men received thirteen dollars a month, with an extra three dollars in clothing allowance. Non-commissioned white officers received a few dollars more than even this, depending on rank. Black Americans saw this as an outrage and an insult to the men fighting. One regiment even protested, pilling up their rifles and refusing to move until equal pay was administered. Their Sergeant was then executed for treason. Equal pay was not fixed until later in the war. The next problem was that of rank. No Black soldier, no matter what his experience, could become a commissioned officer. This meant that at all times colored regiments were commanded by a White officer. There were several exceptions to this rule, but very few. The problem of rank was never fixed until after the Civil War. There was also the problem of treatment by their fellow White soldiers. Most Union, White soldiers looked down on their counterparts, resulting in much discrimination (History.Net). This was still better than the treatment by the Confederate forces. In May 1863, the Confederacy passed a proclamation that all Black troops captured in battle would either be shot or sold back into slavery and that any White officers found leading them would be executed for leading rebel slaves against the Confederacy. Reports soon came in of Confederates executing Black prisoners of war. One such incident was the Massacre at Fort Pillow. Their many Black troops who had surrendered were slaughtered by Confederate forces under the command of General Nathan Forest. Forest would later go on to found the Ku Klux Klan only a year after the war (Creating Black Americans).
The shoulder patch that belonged to the 92nd Infantry Division during World War I. Collection of the Smithsonian National Museum of African American History and Culture.
African American soldiers in four lines posing for the camera. They are wearing military uniforms of 1898 Buffalo Soldiers posing for a picture at Camp Wikoff after returning from Cuba during the Spanish-American War. U.S. Army
“With the declaration that the American West was “closed” in the 1890s, the Buffalo Soldiers’ duties changed. While they remained at their frontier posts, their focus shifted to quelling labor disputes and maintaining social order among citizens.
In 1898, however, the outbreak of the Spanish-American War spurred the Buffalo Soldiers’ remobilization. On February 15, 250 Americans died when the USS Maine blew up and sank in Havana Harbor. Many people in government and the press blamed the deaths on the Spanish government, which was fighting to keep its overseas empire alive. The United States declared war on Spain on April 25, 1898. Americans rallied to the cause of liberating Cuba from Spain with the slogan, “Remember the Maine!”
The Buffalo Soldiers started mobilizing shortly after the USS Maine exploded. In March and April of 1898, they packed their bags and supplies and headed to Southern forts and cantonments to prepare for war with Spain. Eventually, the Buffalo Soldiers, along with white soldiers assembled in Tampa, Florida, for embarkation. While in the South and on the transport ships the Buffalo Soldiers had to endure overt racism from locals and fellow soldiers.
The U.S. Army was ordered to embark for Cuba on June 7, 1898. To the surprise of the Ninth and Tenth Cavalry, they were told to leave their horses behind and fight as infantry. The Twenty-fourth traveled to Cuba on the City of Washington, the Twenty-fifth on the Concho, the Ninth Cavalry on the Miami, and the Tenth Cavalry was split up on the Leona and the Alamo. The main flotilla of 32 ships left port en route to Cuba.
The main American force landed near Daiquiri, Cuba, on June 22, 1898. The next day, the Americans moved landing operations to Siboney, Cuba, seven miles away, because of the area’s more suitable landing beach and infrastructure. The initial landings took several days. The war lasted a total of 113 days. The Buffalo Soldiers played an integral role in the major engagements at Las Guasimas, Tayabacoa, El Caney, and the San Juan Heights.
On June 24, just two days after the first landings an American force commanded by Major General Joseph Wheeler saw combat at the Battle of Las Guasimas. Las Guasimas was a junction between two trails about three miles inland from Siboney. Wheeler sent the First US Volunteer Cavalry, known as the Rough Riders, commanded by Colonel Leonard Wood and Lieutenant Colonel Theodore Roosevelt in one column on the left trail. Wheeler led the First Cavalry and Buffalo Soldiers of the Tenth Cavalry on the other trail that was less well marked. The Buffalo Soldiers had to hack their way through the brush.
Within 20 minutes, the Buffalo Soldiers encountered the Spanish soldiers. They exchanged gunfire, and the Americans were able to push the Spaniards out of their positions into retreat. The Americans now had a way forward toward the Cuban capital and Spanish stronghold. The Tenth Cavalry suffered one man dead and eight wounded during the battle.
The Battle of Tayabacoa was unique because it started as a special operation effort to land supplies and reinforcements. As the Tenth Cavalry was boarding transport ships bound for Cuba on June 7, 1898, Lieutenant Carter P. Johnson chose 50 troopers for a special assignment. Johnson and his group of men were headed behind enemy lines to reinforce and resupply Cuban fighters seeking liberation from Spanish rule.
On June 30, 1898, Cuban freedom fighters and some American volunteers aboard the USS Florida attempted an amphibious landing at Tayabacoa. The landing party immediately engaged with Spanish soldiers from a nearby blockhouse. The Cubans and Americans retreated, leaving behind a group of wounded comrades. A call for volunteers to rescue the wounded soldiers in the Florida began to make the rounds. After several unsuccessful rescue attempts, Private Dennis Bell, Corporal George H. Wanton, Private Fritz Lee, Sergeant William H. Thompkins, and Lieutenant George P. Ahern stepped forward and offered to rescue their wounded comrades.
The group of five soldiers went ashore and surprised the Spanish. The rescuers were able to free all the wounded soldiers, and all returned safely to Florida. Bell, Wanton, Lee, and Thompkins were awarded the Medal of Honor in the summer of 1899 for their actions at Tayabacoa.
On July 1, shortly before the main attack on San Juan Heights, the Battle of El Caney began. This was initially supposed to be a brief engagement, but it lasted all day. The Buffalo Soldiers of the Twenty-fifth Infantry joined 6,600 other Americans in attacking El Caney. Although the Spanish soldiers were greatly outnumbered, they had strong fortified positions, including a stone blockhouse for protection.
When the Twenty-fifth Infantry arrived on the field, they saw the Second Massachusetts retreating, and the Buffalo Soldiers took their place in line. There was fierce fighting as the Twenty-fifth charged up the hill. Spanish Lieutenant Jose Muller stated that they “threw forth a hail of projectiles upon the enemy, while one company after another, without any protection, rushed with veritable fury” toward their position. The Twenty-fifth arrived at the blockhouse at the same time as the Twelfth Infantry. The Americans overran the fort and caused panic in the Spanish ranks. Private Thomas C. Butler, Company H, Twenty-fifth Infantry, was first to enter the blockhouse and take possession of the Spanish flag while members of the Twelfth entered on the other end and took possession of a white flag that was waived by the panicked Spaniards. Each group believed it was the first to capture the position. The Twenty-fifth Infantry sustained eight soldiers killed and 27 wounded at El Caney.
With the Spanish routed from El Caney, the focus shifted to the San Juan Heights. On the morning of July 1, 1898, the Tenth Cavalry along with the Ninth Cavalry and Twenty-fourth Infantry took up their positions around San Juan Heights. The Tenth Cavalry and Ninth Cavalry along with the First Cavalry and the First Volunteer Cavalry—the Rough Riders—held the far right of the American line that hot, humid morning. Their position was in tall grass along the San Juan River.
The Spanish troops were entrenched on San Juan Hill and Kettle Hill firing down on the Tenth’s position. The Spanish had found the range of the cavalry, and their rifle fire began to take a serious toll. Buffalo Soldier Edward L. Baker later wrote in his journal about this time, recounting, “the atmosphere seemed perfectly alive with flying missiles from bursting shells overhead, and rifle bullets, which seemed to have an explosive effect.”
Walking up and down the line of the Tenth’s position and talking to the troops, Baker reassured them while bullets whizzed by. As Baker made his rounds, he heard a groan and saw Private Lewis Marshall of C Troop wounded and struggling face down in the San Juan River. Baker ignored the advice of other soldiers who told him it was too dangerous to try to save Marshall. Baker pulled Marshall from the water and carried him to safety. After carrying Marshall to safety, Baker alerted the regimental doctor to attend to Marshall’s wounds. Marshall survived, thanks to Baker’s actions. Baker received the Medal of Honor for these actions three years later in 1902.
Baker joined the rest of the Buffalo Soldiers in their fight up the San Juan Heights. During the battle, Baker was wounded by shrapnel in his left side and left arm. He continued picking his way through barbed wire entanglements on his way to the summit. He later wrote that the troopers “advanced rapidly…under a galling, converging fire from the enemy’s artillery and infantry.” Finally, Baker and the remaining members of the Tenth U.S. Cavalry along with the Rough Riders reached the summit and forced the Spaniards to retreat. A total of 26 Buffalo Soldiers died in the fight for San Juan Heights.
After the Battle of San Juan Heights, Rough Rider Frank Knox said, “I never saw braver men anywhere.” Lieutenant John J. Pershing wrote, “They fought their way into the hearts of the American people.”
Theodore Roosevelt commented, “… no one can tell whether it was the Rough Riders or the men of the 9th who came forward with the greater courage to offer their lives in the service of their country.” Despite this initial praise, Roosevelt later took a negative tack about the Buffalo Soldiers’ contribution to the victory: “Negro troops were shirkers in their duties and would only go as far as they were led by white officers.”
In response to Roosevelt’s revisionist statement, Tenth Cavalry Trooper Presley Holliday wrote in response, “His [Roosevelt’s] statement was uncalled for and uncharitable, and considering the moral and physical effect the advance of the 10th Cavalry had in weakening the forces opposed to the Colonel’s regiment, both at Las Guasima and San Juan Hill, altogether ungrateful and has done us an immeasurable lot of harm…not every troop or company of colored soldiers who took part in the assaults was led or urged forward by a white officer.”
After the Battle of San Juan Heights, the American forces were able to surround the capital and force the surrender of the Spanish on August 13, 1898. The war officially ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris on December 10, 1898. The United States then took control of the former Spanish colonies of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. Cuba was given its independence from colonial rule at the end of the war.”
Company L stands at attention on the Dyea-Klondike wharf in Dyea, Alaska 1899. Photo courtesy of the Alaska State Library William Norton Collection (ASL-P226-868)
Buffalo Soldier baseball team stationed at West Point circa 1910s. They were known as the ‘Cavalry’ team. Public Domain
“The U.S. Army and baseball have always been connected. Soldiers played baseball as early as the Civil War. It remained a popular pastime on bases around the country. In 1905, a “Special Baseball Commission” was established to document the development of baseball. The commission attributed its invention to U.S. Army General Abner Doubleday. Doubleday was a West Point graduate and Civil War veteran. Despite lack of evidence, they concluded Doubleday was the founder and that legend continues to this day.
The Buffalo Soldiers played baseball from Alaska to Hawaii and everywhere in between. Baseball was a welcome diversion from the monotony of camp life. It also allowed the Buffalo Soldiers to connect with local communities through playing area teams.
In May 1900, the Buffalo Soldiers in Company L, Twenty Fourth Infantry made up one of the first three baseball teams in Skagway, Alaska. These three teams played against each other and teams from Bennett and Juneau. A rivalry developed in the newspaper between the Twenty Fourth Infantry team and the “Skagway team” made up of railroad employees and firemen. They played numerous times to great fanfare of the locals in town.
The Buffalo Soldiers of the Twenty-Fifth Infantry arrived in Honolulu, Hawaii on January 14, 1913. The morning after their arrival they began a two-day, twenty-three-mile march to Schofield Barracks where they were stationed until 1917. Positive cross-cultural relationships began as the troops marched in local parades and competed with civilian sports leagues. They were perhaps best known for their baseball prowess. Stories about their winning baseball team, the “Wreckers,” were published in the Honolulu newspapers. Several team members later joined the Negro League and one player, Wilber “Bullet” Rogan, was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame. The “Wreckers” had a reputation for being one of the best amateur baseball teams in the country.
Until 1947 Buffalo Soldiers wanting to play professional baseball played in the Negro Leagues. Major League Baseball owners refused to sign any African American players. That all changed when Jackie Robinson broke the modern-day color line on April 15, 1947, when he debuted for the Brooklyn Dodgers. That season five men, Jackie Robinson, Henry Thompson, Willard Brown, Larry Doby, and Daniel Bankhead integrated Major League Baseball. They were all veterans of World War Two and three of the five were Buffalo Soldiers.
Jackie Robinson was drafted into the Army on April 3, 1943. He was commissioned a Second Lieutenant in the 761st Tank Battalion. Henry Thompson was drafted into the Army in 1942 and served with the 1695th Combat Engineers. Thompson rose to the rank of Sergeant and was at the Battle of the Bulge. Willard Brown was drafted into the Army in 1943 and served as a member of the Quartermaster Corps. Brown’s role was to transport ammunition to the front lines. Finally, Larry Doby enlisted in the U.S. Navy in 1943 at Camp Robert Smalls, Illinois. Doby served aboard the USS Newark in the Pacific Theater during the war. Daniel Bankhead served in the United States Marine Corps Reserves from April 1942 to June 1946. He attained the rank of sergeant. During his time in the Marine Corps, he played on the Montford Point baseball team. This all-Black segregated team toured the country playing games to raise morale.”
Black Seminole Indian Scouts
A detachment of Black Seminole Indian Scouts circa 1885. Public Domain A group of Black Seminole Indian Scouts from Mexico helped the Buffalo Soldiers during the Plains Wars to track other American Indian groups. These men used their knowledge of the land to effectively do their jobs. Four of them were awarded the Medal of Honor. Who were the Black Seminole Indian Scouts and how did they come to be an integral part of the Buffalo Soldiers on the frontier?
“The Black Seminole Indians followed a circuitous and difficult path from the swamps of Florida to the borderlands of Texas and Mexico. In the Antebellum South, enslaved people in Georgia and South Carolina self-emancipated south into Spanish-held Florida. The Spanish would not send the now-freed Blacks back to enslavement in the colonies. The freedmen and women would make their way into the hinterland of Florida and encounter the Seminole people, who welcomed them. The newly freed men and women assimilated into Seminole life. The historical record shows that the Black Seminoles lived in their towns and fought alongside Seminoles as equals in battle. The Black Seminoles adopted some of the Seminole ways and occasionally intermarried.
During Indian Removal before the Civil War many Seminole people, including the Black Seminoles, were moved West to Indian Territory, modern-day Oklahoma. The Black Seminoles endured the similar hardships of starvation and disenfranchisement as other native peoples during that time. Upon arrival in Indian Territory, they remained vulnerable to kidnapping and re-enslavement.
In 1850, this threat became too much for the Black Seminole Indians. A group led by John Horse and Coacoochee, known as Wild Cat, left Indian Territory and traveled to Mexico, where they could live without fear of re-enslavement. The Mexican government received them warmly and welcomed their help in fighting against Apache and Comanche raiding parties that crossed into Mexico. They also helped fend off bandits and slave raiders attempting to annex parts of Mexico to create a pro-slavery state.
After 20 years in Mexico, the Black Seminoles were interested in returning to the United States. They hoped to reclaim their land rights set out in original treaties at the time of Indian Removal. Major Zenas R. Bliss of the Twenty-fifth Infantry encouraged the Black Seminoles to emigrate back to the United States and offered them positions as scouts. On July 4, 1870, the first group of Black Seminoles arrived at Fort Duncan, Texas, to offer their scouting services. Six weeks later, in August, the U.S. Army created the Seminole Negro Indian Scouts.
The first group consisted of John Kibbetts and 10 other men and their families. Kibbetts, their leader, was appointed sergeant. All 11 men signed up for a six-month enlistment. Many of the white officers at Fort Duncan thought they were hiring scouts that looked like the Seminole people in Oklahoma. They were surprised to see that these scouts were Black. The scouts quickly adapted to their new environment. Major Bliss said they were “excellent hunters, and trailers, and brave scouts…splendid fighters.” Bliss and other officers were more than happy to give the scouts and their families a place to live in exchange for their skills on the frontier.
Throughout the 1870s, more Black Seminoles emigrated back to the United States from Mexico. Most of them settled at Fort Duncan and later Fort Clark in Texas. The ranks of the Seminole Negro Indian Scouts also increased at this time. The scouts numbered no more than 50 enlisted men at any one time.
From 1873 until 1881, Lieutenant John Lapham Bullis led the scouts. They engaged in 26 campaigns and were often heavily outnumbered, but the scouts never lost a man killed or wounded in action. Four of the Black Seminoles received the Medal of Honor for their actions: Private Adam Paine, Private Pompey Factor, Trumpeter Isaac Payne, and Sergeant John Ward. All four are buried in the Seminole Negro Indian Scout Cemetery west of Fort Clark, Texas.
As the Plains Wars ended, the U.S. Army no longer needed the Seminole Negro Indian Scouts. Many of them enlisted in the segregated Buffalo Soldier regiments. In 1914, the U.S. Army officially disbanded the Seminole Negro Indian Scouts. The Black Seminoles were displaced from Fort Clark and moved to nearby Brackettville, Texas. Some of the Black Seminole scouts’ descendants remain in Brackettville, keeping their unique culture and heritage alive for future generations.”
Black Seminole Indian Scouts Medal of Honor Recipients
ARCHIVIST, EDUCATOR, HISTORIAN, and ARTiST
Dale Ricardo Shields is a 2017 winner of The Kennedy Center/Stephen Sondheim Inspirational Teacher Award®, 2017 and 2015 Tony® award nominee for the Excellence in Theatre Education Award, the 2017 AUDELCO/"VIV" Special Achievement Award, 2020, 2021, and 2022 ENCORE AWARD / The Actors Fund and winner of the 2022.
Recently, he won the 2022 Legend Award from his alma mater Ohio University.
He is the 2021 winner of the Paul Robeson Award, presented (jointly) by the Actors Equity Association and the Actors Equity Foundation.
Research Accomplishments:
His extensive professional credits as a Director, Stage manager, and Actor (Broadway, Off-Broadway, Off-Off-Broadway, and Regional) As an actor he has appeared on Saturday Night Live, Another World, Guiding Light, The Cosby Show, and the ITV television series "Special Needs" and commercials and film.
Professor Shields is a member of the Actors Equity Association, Screen Actors Guild, the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists, and the American Guild of Musical Artists performance unions and an associate member of the Society of Stage Directors and Choreographers.
He began his artistic academic career in New York City at Playwrights Horizon, The South Bronx Action Theatre, and Mind Builders, and then was invited to join the teaching staff at the Joseph Papp Public Theatre (New York Shakespeare Festival). He represented the United States for Theatre Young Audiences at the ASSITEJ Theatre Festival in London, England.
He has been a Professor and Visiting Artist at Ohio University, The College of Wooster, Denison University, Macalester College, Randolph- Macon College, Susquehanna University, and SUNY Potsdam.
He holds B.F.A and M.F.A, Degrees from Ohio University.
